In India, educational attainment varies substantially across gender and generations. Older women in particular have historically faced restricted access to formal education because of patriarchal norms, early marriage, and gendered household responsibilities. Consequently, a large proportion of older Indian women remain uneducated or possess very low levels of schooling compared with men. These educational inequalities may contribute significantly to gender gaps in depressive symptoms among older adults. For instance, education may provide women with greater autonomy, financial independence, and decision-making capacity, which can positively influence mental health outcomes. At the same time, the protective effect of education may differ between men and women because of unequal labor market participation, family expectations, and caregiving roles.
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